Second language Totally Explained

A second language (L2) is any language learned after the first language or mother tongue (L1). Some languages, often called auxiliary languages, are used primarily as second languages or lingua francas. It is quite possible that the first language a person learns may no longer be their dominant language, that is, the one he or she uses most or the one with which he or she's most comfortable in. For example, the Canadian census defines first language for its purposes as "the first language learned in childhood and still spoken", recognizing that for some, the earliest language may be lost, a process known as language attrition. This can happen when young children move, with or without their family (because of immigration or international adoption), to a new language environment.

Age

According to some researchers, the defining difference between a first language (L1) and a second language (L2) is the age at which the language was learned. For example, linguist Eric Lenneberg used second language to mean a language consciously acquired or used by its speaker after puberty. In most cases, people never achieve the same level of fluency and comprehension in their second languages as in their first language. These views are closely associated with the Critical Period Hypothesis.
In acquiring an L2, Hyltenstam (1992) found that around the age of 6 and 7 seemed to be a cut-off point for bilinguals to achieve native-like proficiency. After that age, L2 learners could get near-native-like-ness but their language would, while consisting of very few actual errors, have enough errors that would set them apart from the L1 group. The inability of some of the subjects to achieve native-like proficiency must be seen in relation to the age of onset (AO). “The age of 6 or 8 does seem to be an important period in distinguishing between near-native and native-like ultimate attainment... More specifically, it may be suggested that AO interacts with frequency and intensity of language use” (Hyltenstam, 1992, p. 364).
Later, Hyltenstam & Abrahamsson (2003) modified their age cut-offs to argue that after childhood, in general, it becomes more and more difficult to acquire native-like-ness, but that there's no cut-off point in particular. Furthermore, they discuss a number of cases where a native-like L2 was acquired during adulthood.

Similarities and differences between L2 and L1

Speed

Acquiring a second language can be a lifelong learning process for many. Despite persistent efforts, most learners of a second language will never become fully native-like in it, although with practice considerable fluency can be achieved. However, children by around the age of 5 have more or less mastered their first language, with the exception of vocabulary and a few grammatical structures.

Stages

Acquiring a second language occurs in systematic stages. Much evidence has been gathered to show that basic sounds, vocabulary, negating phrases, forming questions, using relative clauses, and so on are developed. This development is independent from input (we don't hear nor read language in this order), independent from learning situation (in the classroom or on the street), and is generally applicable across a spectrum of learners (from different language backgrounds). This is similar to the learning stages that babies go through when acquiring the first language: babbling (bababa), vocabulary (milk then later milk drink), negation (no play), question forming (where she go), and so on.

Correction

Error correction doesn't seem to have a direct influence on learning a second language. Instruction may affect the rate of learning, but the stages remain the same. Adolescents and adults who know the rule are faster than those who do not. In the first language, children don't respond to systematic correction. Furthermore, children who have limited input still acquire the first language.

Depth of knowledge

Learners in the first or second language have knowledge that goes beyond the input they received, in other words, the whole is greater than the parts. Learners of a language are able to construct correct utterances (for example phrases, sentences, and questions) that they've never seen or heard before.

Success

Success in language learning can be measured in two ways: likelihood and quality. First language learners will be successful in both measurements. It is inevitable that all first language learners will learn a first language and with few exceptions, that'll be fully successful. For second language learners, success isn't guaranteed. For one, learners may become fossilized or stuck as it were with ungrammatical items. (Fossilization occurs when language errors become a permanent feature. See Canale & Swain (1980), Johnson (1992), Selinker (1972), and Selinker and Lamendella (1978)). The difference between learners may be significant. Finally, as noted elsewhere, L2 learners rarely achieve complete native-like control of the second language.

X	2	1
speed	NA	acquisition is rapid
stages	systematic stages of development	systematic stages of development
error correction	not directly influential	not involved
depth of knowledge	beyond the level of input	beyond the level of input
success (1)	not inevitable (possible fossilization*)	inevitable
success (2)		successful

Theories of second language acquisition (SLA)

The distinction between acquiring and learning was made by Stephen Krashen (1982) as part of his Monitor Theory. According to Krashen, the acquisition of a language is a natural process; whereas learning a language is a conscious one. In the former, the student needs to partake in natural communicative situations. In the latter, error correction is present, as is the study of grammatical rules isolated from natural language. Not all educators in second language agree to this distinction; however, the study of how a second language is learned/acquired is referred to as Second Language Acquisition or SLA.
Research in SLA focuses on the developing knowledge and use of a language by children and adults who already know at least one other language... [and] a knowledge of second language acquisition may help educational policy makers set more realistic goals for programmes for both foreign language courses and the learning of the majority language by minority language children and adults (Spada & Lightbown, p. 115).
SLA has been influenced by both linguistic and psychological theories. One of the dominant linguistic theories hypothesizes that a device or module of sorts in the brain contains innate knowledge. Many psychological theories, on the other hand, hypothesize that cognitive mechanisms, responsible for much of human learning, process language.

Linguistic theories

Universal grammar

Universal grammar (UG) was initially a theory of first language acquisition. Noam Chomsky (1968) argued children acquire a first language before they're able to accomplish simpler tasks. Children with intellectual disabilities acquire language. The acquired language is greater than the input received. Input is often degenerate, with false starts, slips of the tongue, and grammatical errors, still children acquire the language. Not all parents correct errors in their young children, still children overcome those errors. Due to these, Chomsky argued that we must have an innate device that's able to do all languages. Children, on hearing the language around them, set this device to work in this language. One of the features of this language device is the claim that there's a critical period for acquiring a first language. Thus, adolescents and adults would no longer have access to this device to enable them to acquire a second language. Still, proponents of UG argue that the device is still there, it's simply no longer able to assist in the SLA without interference from the first language - that is, the student will see the L2 through the L1.

Monitor theory

While UG is predominantly a theory of first language acquisition, the monitor theory (Krashen, 1982) is predominantly a theory for SLA. As we noted above, Krashen discusses the difference between acquisition and learning. This is the base of the monitor theory. To acquire an L2, according to this model, the learner needs to focus on messages and meanings. Krashen also proposed the natural order hypothesis whereby the acquisition of language is in developmental stages. The comprehensible input hypothesis argues that acquisition takes place when the student is exposed to meaningful and a variety of input ([i+1] = input beyond the current stage is necessary). Another component of the model is the affective filter hypothesis which argues that the student must be motivated to learn the new language.
Much of Krashen's model has been criticized, for example, the vagueness of the model, or the lack of empirical studies. However, many students and teachers feel the difference between learning and acquisition: for many frustrated learners, the rules were studied, yet spontaneous language doesn't flow.

Foreign language

In pedagogy, a distinction is often made between 'second language' and foreign language, the latter being learned for use in an area where that language isn't generally spoken. Arguably, English in countries such as India, the Scandinavian countries, and the Netherlands can be considered a second language for many of its speakers, because they learn it young, speak it fluently, and use it constantly. The same can be said for French in the Arab Maghreb Union, except for Libya, although--like for English in the Scandinavian countries and the Netherlands--French isn't an official language in any of these Arab countries. The same can also be said for the rest of sub-Saharan Francophone Africa, except that, in all Francophone sub-Saharan African countries other than Mauritania, French is an official language.
In China, however, English would be considered a foreign language due to the lack of a number of characteristics, such as historical links, media, opportunities for use, similar vocabulary, and common script. Although Egypt, like most of the other Arab Persian Gulf states, were once British colonies, English, like in China, is a foreign language in Egypt (see Education in Egypt).
Like English in those countries mentioned in the previous paragraph, French would be considered a foreign language in Austria, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Egypt, Hungary, Lithuania and Poland, even though all are member states of the Francophonie. French would be considered a foreign language in Romania, Lebanon and Moldova as well. This is despite Romanian and French being romance languages (unlike Chinese and English, which come from two different language families). This is also despite Romania and Moldova being the only two countries in the world where Romanian is an official language at the federal level, Romania's historical links to France, and both Roumanophone countries' membership in the Francophonie. For Lebanon, French would be considered a foreign language, even though most of its universities operate in either that language or English, French is an administrative language and--like Romania--Lebanon has historical ties to France and is a Francophonie member state.

External results

Click here for more details on Second Language

External Link Exchanges

Do you know how hard it is to get a link from a large encyclopaedia? Well we're different and will prove it. To get a link from us just add the following HTML to your site on a relevant page:

<a href="http://second_language.totallyexplained.com">Second language Totally Explained</a>

Then simply click through this link from your web page. Our crawlers will verify your link, extract the title of your web page and instantly add a link back to it. If you like you can remove the words Totally Explained and embed the link in article text.
As long as your link remains in place, we'll keep our link to you right here. Please play fair - our crawlers are watching. Your site must be closely related to this one's topic. Any kind of spamming, dubious practises or removing the link will result in your link from us being dropped and, potentially, your whole site being banned.